Thirtheenth Meeting

Seismologists have devised two scales of measurement to enable them to describe and record information about earthquakes in quantitative terms. The most widely known measurement is the Richter scale, a numerical logarithmic scale developed and introduced by American seismologist Charles F. Richter in 1935.

The purpose of the scale is to measure the amplitude of the largest trace recorded by a standard seismograph one hundred kilometers from the epicenter of an earthquake. Tables have been formulated to demonstrate the magnitude of any earthquake from any seismograph. For example, a one-unit increase in magnitude translates into an increase of  times thirty  in  released  energy. To put that another way, each number on the Richter scale represents an earthquake ten times as strong as one of the next lower magnitude. Specifically, an earthquake of magnitude 6 is ten times as strong as an earthquake of magnitude 5.

     On the Richter scale, earthquakes of 6.75 are considered great and 7.0 to 7.75 are considered major. An earthquake that reads 4 to 5.5 would be expected to have caused localized damage, and those of magnitude 2 may be felt.

     The other earthquake-assessment scale, introduced by the Italian seismologist Giuseppe Mercalli, measures the intensity of shaking, using gradations from 1 to 12. Because the effects of such shaking dissipate with distance from the epicenter of the earthquake, the Mercalli rating depends on the site of the measurement Earthquakes of Mercalli 2 or 3 are basically the same as those of Richter 3 or 4; measurements of 11 or 12 on the Mercalli scale can be roughly correlated with magnitudes of 8 or 9 on the Richter scale. In either case, the relative power or energy released by the earthquake can be understood, and the population waits to hear how bad the earthquake that just passed really was.

     It is estimated that almost one million earthquakes occur each year, but most of them are so minor that they pass undetected. In fact, more than one thousand earthquakes of a magnitude of 2 or lower on the Richter scale occur every day.

1.  Which of the following is the main topic of the passage?

     A.        Earthquakes                             C.  Charles F. Richter  

     B.         The Richter scale                     D.  Seismography

2.  According to information in the passage, what does the Richter scale record?

     A.        The distance from the epicenter

     B.         The amplitude of the largest trace

     C.         The degree of damage

     D.        The location of the epicenter

3.  The word standard in paragraph 1 could best be replaced by?

     A.        reliable                         C.  conventional                     

     B.         complex                       D.   Abandoned

4.  What is the value of the tables?

     A.         They allow us to interpret the magnitude of earthquakes

     B.          They help us to calculate our distance from earthquakes

     C.          They record all earthquakes

     D.         They release the energy of earthquakes

5.  How does each number on the Richter scale compare?

     A.         Each number is one hundred times as strong as           

                  the previous number

     B.          Each magnitude is ten times stronger than the              

                  previous magnitude

     C.          The strength of each magnitude is one less than

                  the previous magnitude

     D.         The scale decreases by five or six for each number

6.  What does the author means by the statement :

Because the effects of such shaking dissipate with distance from the epicenter of the earthquake, the Mercalli rating depends on the site of the measurement?

     A.        The Mercalli rating will vary depending on the

                 location of the measurement

B.         The results of the Mercalli rating are less accurate at greater distances from the epicenter

C.         The stronger shaking of the earthquake at the center is not detected by the Mercalli rating

D.        The Mercalli rating is useful because it is taken farther away from the center of the earthquake

7.  The word undetected in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to ?

     A.        with no damage           C.   with no name                   

     B.         with no notice              D.   with no problem

8.  With which of the following statements would the author most probably agree?

     A.        Only the Richter scale describes earthquakes in          quantitative terms

     B.         Both the Richter scale and the Mercalli Scale measure earthquakes in the same way

     C.         Most earthquakes are measurable on either the Richter or the Mercalli scale

     D.        The Mercalli and the Richter scales are different but they can be compared

9.  The passage discusses all of the following in the explanation of the Richter scale EXCEPT ?

     A.        It was introduced in 1935

     B.         It was developed by an American seismologist   

     C.         It has a scale of 1 to 12

     D.        It measures the magnitude of earthquakes

PROBLEMS WITH REDUNDANCY

Redundancy means using more words than necessary.

Problem 19  

 Redundancy – Unnecessary Phrases

     In all patterns, prefer simple, direct sentences to complicated, indirect sentences. Find the subject-Verb-Complement-Modifier, and determine whether the other words are useful or unnecessary.

  S                                          V                       C                     M

 Lee                        learned              English                           quickly

Avoid using an adjective with such phrases as in character or in nature.

Avoid using the redundant pattern    in a      adjective        manner

Instead of an adverb such as quickly.  in a           quick          manner

Examples

Incorrect:  The key officials who testified before the senate committee                    responded in a manner  that   was evasive.

Correct  :  The key officials who testified before the senate committee                     responded evasively.

Incorrect:  Mr. Davis knows a great deal in terms of the condition of the                  situation.

Correct  :  Mr. Davis knows a great deal about the situation.

Incorrect:  It was a problem which was very difficult in character and                     very delicate in nature.

Correct  :  The problem was difficult and delicate.

Incorrect:  The disease was very serious in the nature of it.

Correct  :  The disease was very serious.

Problem 20

Redundancy – Repetition of Words With the Same Meaning

In all patterns, avoid using words with the same meaning consecutively in a sentence.

Examples

Incorrect:  The money that I have is sufficient enough for my needs.

Correct  :  The money that I have is sufficient for my needs.

Incorrect:  Bill asked the speaker to repeat again because he had not           heard him the first time.

Correct  :  Bill asked the speaker to repeat because he had not heard           him the first time.

Incorrect:  The class advanced forward rapidly.

Correct  :  The class advanced rapidly.

Incorrect:  She returned back to her hometown after she had finished                      her degree.

Correct  :  She returned to her hometown after she had finished her            degree.

Incorrect:  I am nearly almost finished with this chapter.

Correct  :  I am nearly finished with this chapter.

                                                or

 I am almost finished with this chapter.

Problem 21  Redundancy – Repetition of Noun by Pronoun

In all patterns, avoid using a noun and the pronoun that refers to it consecutively in a sentence. Avoid using pronoun after the noun it refers to, and that.

Examples

Incorrect:  My teacher he said to listen to the news on the radio in               order to practice listening comprehension.

Correct  :  My teacher said to listen to the news on the radio in order           to practice listening comprehension.

Incorrect:  Steve he plans to go into business with his father.

Correct  :  Steve plans to go into business with his father.

PROBLEMS WITH WORD CHOICE

Problem 22

     Transitive and Intransitive Verbs – Raise and Rise

A transitive verb is a verb that takes a complement. An intransitive verb is a verb that does not take a complement.

The following pairs of verbs can be confusing. Remember that raise is a transitive verb; it takes a complement. Rise is an intransitive verb; it does not take a complement.

                              

                               Transitive                                         Intransitive

Verb word       Past      Participle        Verb word       Past     Participle

Remember that to rise means to move to a higher place or to cause to rise. To rise means to go up or to increase.

Raise and rise are also used as nouns. A raise means an increase in salary. A rise means an increase in price, worth, quality, or degree.

                         S             RAISE                       C                                       M

            Heavy rain       raises     the water level of the reservoir          every spring.

            Heavy rain       raised     the water level of the reservoir            last week.

                        S                 RISE                    C                                M

The water level      rises                                     when it rains every spring.

The water level      rose                                      when it rains every spring.

Examples

Incorrect:  The cost of living has raised 3 percent in the past year.

Correct  :  The cost of living has risen 3 percent in the past year.

Incorrect:  The flag is risen at dawn by an honor guard.

Correct  :  The flag is raised at dawn by an honor guard.

                                 (An honor guard raises the flag.)

Incorrect:  Kay needs to rise her grades if she wants to get into                                 graduate school.

Correct  :  Kay needs to raise her grades if she wants to get into                                            graduate school.

Incorrect:  The landlord has risen the rent.

Correct  :  The landlord has raised the rent.

Problem 23     Transitive and Intransitive Verbs – Lay and Lie

Remember that lay is a transitive verb; it takes a complement. Lie is an intransitive verb; it does not take a complement.

                                Transitive                                           Intransitive

Verb word          Past      Participle     Verb word          Past       Participle

      lay                laid           laid                 lie                  lay            lain

Remember that lay means to put, to place, or to cause to lie. To lie means to recline or to occupy a place.

The past form of the verb to lie is lay.

        

                 S        LAY             C                                 M

The postman        lays        the mail              on the table every day.

The postman        lays        the mail              on the table yesterday.

    S                  LIE         C                                    M

   He                 lies                     on the sofa to rest every day after work.

   He                 lay                      on the sofa to rest yesterday after work.

Examples

Incorrect:  Her coat was laying on the chair.

Correct  :  Her coat was lying on the chair.

Incorrect:  Key West lays off the coast of Florida.

Correct  :  Key West lays off the coast of Florida.

Incorrect:  I have lain your notebook on the table by the door so that                   you won’t forget it.

Correct  :  I have laid your notebook on the table by the door so that                   you won’t forget it.

Incorrect:  Key West lays off the coast of Florida.

Correct  :  Key West lays off the coast of Florida.

Incorrect:  Why don’t you lay down for a while?

Correct  :  Why don’t you lie down for a while?

Incorrect:  Linda always forgets where she lies her glasses.

Correct  :  Linda always forgets where she lays her glasses.

Problem 24        Transitive and Intransitive Verbs – Set and Sit

n  Remember that set is a transitive verb; it takes a complement. Sit is an intransitive verb; it does not take a complement.

                

                              Transitive                            Intransitive

Verb word      Past      Participle       Verb word     Past       Participle

      set              set             set                      sit            sat              sat

     Remember that to set means to put, to place, or to cause to sit. To sit means to occupy a place on a chair or a flat surface.

        S               SET                   C                                      M

The students      set        the lab equipment         on the table every class.

The students      set      the lab equipmenton      the table last class period.

           

            S                                SIT              C                             M

The equipment sits                                   on the table every class.

The equipment sat                               on the table last class period

Examples

Incorrect:  Please sit the telephone on the table by the bed.

Correct  :  Please set the telephone on the table by the bed

Incorrect:  Won’t you set down?

Correct  :  Won’t you sit down?

Incorrect:  Their house sets on a hill overlooking a lake.

Correct  :  Their house sits on a hill overlooking a lake.